A tokamak also requires large-scale power electronics. Here again China dominates. Similar systems are found in the high-speed rail (HSR) industry, renewable microgrids, and arc furnaces. As of 2024, China had deployed over 48,000 kilometers of HSR. That is three times the length of Europe’s HSR network and 55 times as long as the Acela network in the US, which is slower than HSR. While other nations have a presence, China’s expertise is more recent and is being applied on a larger scale.
But this is not the end of the story. The West still has an opportunity to lead the other three adjacent industries important to the fusion supply chain: cryo-plants, fuel processing, and blankets.Â
The electromagnets in an operational tokamak need to be kept at cryogenic temperatures of around 20 Kelvin to remain superconducting. This requires large-scale, multi-megawatt cryogenic cooling plants. Here, the country best set up to lead the industry is less clear. The two major global suppliers of cryo-plants are Europe-based Linde Engineering and Air Liquide Engineering; the US has Air Products and Chemicals and Chart Industries. But they are not alone: China’s domestic champions in the cryogenic sector include Hangyang Group, SASPG, Kaifeng Air Separation, and SOPC. Each of these regions already has an industrial base that could scale up to meet the demands of fusion.
Fuel production for fusion is a nascent part of the industrial base requiring processing technologies for light-isotope gases—hydrogen, deuterium, and tritium. Some processing of light-isotope gases is already done at small scale in medicine, hydrogen weapons production, and scientific research in the US, Europe, and China. But the scale needed for the fusion industry does not exist in today’s industrial base, presenting a major opportunity to develop the needed capabilities.
Similarly, blankets and heat flux management are an opportunity for the West. The blanket is the medium used to absorb energy from the fusion reaction and to breed tritium. Commercial-scale blankets will require entirely novel technology. To date, no adjacent industries have relevant commercial expertise in liquid lithium, lead-lithium eutectic, or fusion-specific molten salts that are required for blanket technology. Some overlapping blanket technologies are in early-stage development by the nuclear fission industry. As the largest producer of beryllium in the world, the US has an opportunity to capture leadership because that element is a key material in leading fusion blanket concepts. But the use of beryllium must be coupled with technology development programs for the other specialty blanket components.
These six industries will prove critical to scaling fusion energy. In some, such as thin-film processing and large metal-alloy structures, China already has a sizable advantage. Crucially, China recognizes the importance of these adjacent industries and is actively harnessing them in its fusion efforts. For example, China launched a fusion consortium that consists of industrial giants spanning the steel, machine tooling, electric grid, power generation, and aerospace sectors. It will be extremely difficult for the West to catch up in these areas, but policymakers and business leaders must pay attention and try to create robust alternative supply chains.
As the industrial area of greatest strength, cryo-plants could continue to be an opportunity for leadership in the West. Bolstering Western cryo-plant production by creating demand for natural-gas liquefaction will be a major boon to the future cryo-plant supply chain that will support fusion energy.
The US and European countries also have an opportunity to lead in the emerging industrial areas of fuel processing and blanket technologies. Doing so will require policymakers to work with companies to ensure that public and private funding is allocated to these critical emerging supply chains. Governments may well need to serve as early customers and provide debt financing for significant capital investment. Governments can also do better to incentivize private capital and equity financing—for example, through favorable capital-gains taxation. In lagging areas of thin-film and alloy production, the US and Europe will likely need partners, such as South Korea and Japan, that have the industrial bases to compete globally with China.
